UNDERSTANDING ECONOMIC

NAMA : MARIANA FITRIA
KELAS : 1EA09 ( 2EA13)
NPM :14211298
TUGAS SOFTSKILL BAHASA INGGRIS 2

THE ECONOMIC LITERACY PROJECT

Why it's Important to Understand Economics

 

Some may think that economics is too difficult a subject to be taught to children and youth, and that such instruction should wait until college. Nothing could be more incorrect.

The case for economic literacy is a strong one. George Stigler, a Nobel Laureate in economics, probably stated it best almost three decades ago when he wrote: "The public has chosen to speak and vote on economic problems, so the only open question is how intelligently it speaks and votes." In Stigler's view, economic literacy is special because it contributes to two classes of knowledge. First, it serves as a "means of communication among people, incorporating a basic vocabulary or logic that is so frequently encountered that the knowledge should be possessed by everyone." Second, it is a "type of knowledge frequently needed and yet not susceptible to economical purchase from experts."

Economic literacy certainly contributes to the first class of knowledge. People like to think and talk about the economic issues that affect them as consumers, workers, producers, investors, citizens and in other roles they assume over a lifetime. Economic literacy also gives people the tools for understanding their economic world and how to interpret events that will either directly or indirectly affect them. Nations benefit from having an economically literate population because it improves the public's ability to comprehend and evaluate critical issues. This understanding is especially important in democracies that rely on the active support and involvement of its citizens.

Economic literacy contributes to a second class of knowledge. For some economic decisions, such as buying a home or investing in the stock market, it is possible to hire professional or technical help when making a choice, but in most cases it is neither economical nor practical for an individual to hire a skilled professional every time an economic decision needs to be made. Even when such advice is given, the final choice must be made by the individual, not the adviser. What this means is that each person must ultimately serve as his or her own economist in making many economic choices, whether those choices involve buying a product, getting a loan, voting on candidates and economic issues, or something else. Economic literacy improves the competence of each individual for making personal and social decisions about the multitude of economic issues that will be encountered over a lifetime.

Economic Education

Whether there is a case for economic literacy, however, is not the most important question that needs to be answered. George Stigler and many other distinguished economists and individuals have already made that case. The more essential question to be asked is: How can we improve economic literacy in our society? Answering that question naturally turns the focus to economic education.

The development of economic literacy must begin in the schools. Even young children are capable of learning basic economic concepts that help them understand their economic world. In the secondary years, that initial foundation can be expanded to include instruction in a broader set of economic ideas and concepts. This additional education gives students greater capacity to understand more complex personal or national economic issues.

Some may think that economics is too difficult a subject to be taught to children and youth, and that such instruction should wait until college. Nothing could be more incorrect. No one would even think of making such an argument for math or science education. Waiting until students are in college to teach economics is simply a matter of "too little and too late." The majority of students end their formal education with secondary school, and even those students who continue their learning at a college or university may not take an economics course. The fact is that the best opportunity for economic education occurs before graduation from high school.

There are three essential ingredients for effective economic education in the schools. First, teachers must be knowledgeable about the subject and be able to help students learn how to use basic economic concepts to analyze personal and social issues. Second, good curriculum guides and instructional materials are needed that present economic content at an appropriate level for the student to understand. Third, economics must have a central place in the school curriculum—similar to math, science, history and language arts—so that substantial classroom time is devoted to economics instruction.

Over the past 40 years there has been a significant improvement in each area.

Teachers now have more economic knowledge because they are taking more economics courses. Instruction in economics in the classroom is more analytical and less descriptive because of the development of curriculum guides and national standards. There are now many high quality textbooks and supplementary materials for instruction. More high school graduates are completing an economics course and more instructional time is devoted to economics throughout the school curriculum.

The Evidence

Although there has been progress, much more needs to be accomplished in the coming decades if we are to produce an economically literate population. A major problem in this nation is that too few students are receiving an economic education before they graduate from high school. A study of high school transcripts shows that only about 44 percent of high school students take a separate course in economics. This course is usually offered in the 12th grade as an elective and lasts for only a semester. Although more states have made economics a required course for students, only 16 states require high school graduates to take some sort of economics course before graduation.

Given this situation—that fewer than half of high school graduates take a course in economics—it should not be surprising that study after study show that there is widespread economic illiteracy among youth and the American public. In one such study, I administered the Test of Economic Literacy, an achievement measure covering basic economic concepts, to 11th and 12th grade students nationwide and found that students supplied correct answers to less than half the questions. In another study I conducted with The Gallup Organization, I found that less than four in 10 high school seniors or adults could answer basic questions about economic terms and concepts that are essential for understanding economic events and issues reported in the news media. No matter what the economic content of questions or the test format, the study results remain the same—youth and adults show a great deal of ignorance when it comes to basic economics.

Youth are aware of their deficiencies because they give themselves low self-assessments of economic understanding in survey studies. Some 87 percent of high school seniors rated their knowledge and understanding of economic and economic issues as only fair or poor. (Among the general public, 83 percent gave the same responses.) One reason for these low self-ratings is that high school students are well aware that they are not receiving an adequate education in economics. When asked whether they were taught a lot, a littleor nothing at all about how the economy works, 76 percent said that they were taught little or nothing. (Compare that percentage with the 7 percent who said they were taught little or nothing about mathematics.) In addition, both high school students and the general public had a recommendation for what should be done: Over 96 percent said the nation's schools should teach more about how our economy works.

 

 

 

The Consequences

The question that can be asked at this point in the discussion is "So what?" Why does it matter whether a student has taken an economics course or knows something about basic economic concepts? The answer is that economic knowledge has a direct and substantive effect on people's opinions about economic issues. This relationship can be illustrated with two examples from national survey studies.

The microeconomic example goes to the heart of support for a market economy. One knowledge question asked youth to respond to the following statement: To the best of your knowledge, the prices of most products in a competitive market, like the United States, are determined by: (a) supply and demand for products; (b) the consumer price index; (c) local, state, or the Federal government; (d) the monetary policy of the Federal Reserve. Just five in 10 youth knew that the prices of most products in a competitive market were determined by supply and demand. Two in 10 thought that prices were determined by the consumer price index. Another two in 10 believed that prices were determined by government. The remainder either thought prices were set by the monetary policy of the Federal Reserve or did not know.

Knowing what determines prices in a market economy and accepting the outcomes are two different things. If demand or supply conditions change, prices in a competitive market will rise and fall. Having a basic understanding of how markets work does not always mean that people will like price changes, especially if prices rise, but it should increase the probability of accepting the market outcome.

An opinion question was also asked to probe the degree of support among youth for the operation of competitive markets:A bicycle manufacturer raises the price of bikes because the demand increased even though the cost of producing bikes has not increased. Do you think the manufacturer should be allowed to raise prices? Two-thirds of youth said they were opposed to allowing the bike manufacturer to raise prices, which is certainly not a ringing endorsement of competitive markets. In fact, there are many examples of businesses raising prices based on increased demand. The prices for seasonal clothing are higher at the beginning of the season than at the end. Airfare rises in peak travel periods. Auto dealers raise prices (or give fewer discounts) when particular models become popular.

When you cross-tabulate the responses to the economic knowledge and opinion questions, a distinct pattern emerges. Among youth who knew that supply and demand determined the prices in a competitive market, 60 percent would allow the bike manufacturer to raise prices. Among youth who gave an incorrect response to the knowledge question, only 41 percent thought the bike manufacturer should be allowed to increase prices. The differences in the percentages show that what many youth know about how markets work directly affects their acceptance of the market result.

For a macroeconomic example, the basic economic question was: What is an example of monetary policy? Would it be a change in: (a) the discount rate; (b) a change in Federal government spending; or (c) a change in corporate profits.Only 17 percent of high school students knew that a change in the discount rate was an example of a change in monetary policy. About four in 10 thought it was a change in government spending (fiscal policy), about two in 10 thought it was a change in corporate profits, and another two in 10 did not know.

Although most high school students were ignorant of what monetary policy was, they were quite willing to give their opinion on this monetary policy question: Who should set monetary policy? Should it be: (a) the President; (b) the Congress; (c) the Federal Reserve; or (d) the United States Treasury? This issue is important because it determines whether there will be an independent central bank, isolated from direct political pressure, that can effectively control the money supply and maintain price stability. Only 16 percent of youth thought the Federal Reserve should be responsible for setting monetary policy.

When responses from the monetary policy knowledge and opinion questions were cross-tabulated, they show that there were significant differences in the support for the Federal Reserve having control over monetary policy in the United States based on the respondent's correct or incorrect responses to the knowledge question. Among high school students who could give a correct example of a change in monetary policy, 32 percent thought it should be set by the Federal Reserve, but among high school students who gave incorrect examples only 15 percent thought that monetary policy should be set by the Federal Reserve.

Similar cross-tabulations of opinion and knowledge questions on such topics as unemployment, the federal budget, economic growth, profits or trade protectionism could be performed with survey data to demonstrate the same point. Survey data have also been collected from the general public on these topics and the cross-tabulations show the same patterns as those for youth. The survey findings clearly indicate that what youth and adults know about basic economics affects what they think about an economic issue. What is especially disturbing is that people who have no basic knowledge about an economic issue are quite willing to state an opinion on that issue. This knowledge deficiency affects people's ability to evaluate economic matters and produces uninformed opinions. Among the informed, of course, there will still be differences about what should be done on an issue, but it provides a solid basis for a reasonable discussion of economic alternatives.

The development of basic economic literacy is an important goal for a democratic society that relies heavily on informed citizenry and personal economic decision-making. To achieve that goal will require that significant gaps in the economic education of youth be closed by giving economics a more central place in the school curriculum. More economics coursework at the precollege level sets a foundation for economic literacy, but it is only the beginning. As George Stigler reminded us long ago: "We shall have to combine vast efforts and creative experimentations if we are to produce the first economically literate society in history."

 

References

Stigler, George J. (1970). "The Case, if Any, for Economic Literacy," Journal of Economic Education, 1:2, 77-84.

Walstad, William B. (ed.). (1994). An International Perspective on Economic Education. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Walstad, William B. (1996). "Economic Knowledge and the Formation of Economic Opinions and Attitudes." In P. Lunt and A. Furnham (eds.), Economic Socialization: The Economic Beliefs and Behaviours of Young People (pp. 162-182). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

Walstad, William B. (1996). Youth and Entrepreneurship. Kansas City, MO: Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership, Inc.

Walstad, William B. (1997). "The Effects of Economic Knowledge on Public Opinion of Economic Issues," Journal of Economic Education, 28:3, 195-205.

Walstad, William B. and Larsen, M. (1992). A National Survey of American Economic Literacy. Lincoln, NE: The Gallup Organization.

Walstad is director of the National Center for Research in Economic Education and Edwin Faulkner Professor of Economics at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Since 1992 he has been associate editor of the Journal of Economic Education and is a past president of the National Association of Economic Educators. Walstad, who is the author of several hundred scholarly works in economic education, is also well known for his national assessments of economic understanding and prepared a report on American economic literacy with The Gallup Organization in 1992.

Walstad received his doctorate in economics from the University of Minnesota and served on the economics faculty at the University of Missouri-St. Louis prior to coming to Nebraska.

Sumber; http://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id=3582

THE CLAUSE

NAMA : MARIANA FITRIA
NPM : 14211298
KELAS : 1EA09 ( 2EA13)
TUGAS SOFTSKILL BAHASA INGGRIS 2

Recognize a clause when you see one.

Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [ordependent], adjective [or relative], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help you distinguish one type of clause from another.

Main Clauses

Every main clause will follow this pattern:

subject + verb = complete thought.

Here are some examples:

Lazy students whine.

Students = subject; whine = verb.

Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

My dog loves pizza crusts.

Dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise, you have afragment, a major error.

Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:

subordinate conjunction + subject + verb =incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whenever lazy students whine

Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb.

As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject;spilled, splashed = verbs.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts

Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main clause. Generally, the punctuation looks like this:

main clause + Ø + subordinate clause.

subordinate clause + , + main clause.

Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above:

Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads.

Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. The patterns look like these:

relative pronoun or adverb + subject +verb = incomplete thought.

relative pronoun as subject + verb =incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser

Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.

Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm

Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews,drools = verbs.

That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs.

Who loves pizza crusts

Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb.
Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect them to main clauses to finish the thought. Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above:

The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep their complaints to themselves.

My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm.

Anthony ran to get paper towels for the colathat had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly.
Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example:

A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath.

Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas.
If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential anddoes require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision:

My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath.

Noun Clauses

Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example:

You really do not want to know theingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.

Ingredients = noun.
If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have anoun clause:

You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.

What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.

Sumber; http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/clause.htm

KEWARGANEGARAAN 2

Nama; Mariana Fitria

NPM; 14211298

Kelas; 2EA13

TUGAS SOFTSKILL KEWARGANEGARAAN 2

Pengertian Dan Sejarah HAM di Indonesia

Definisi Hak Asasi Manusia (HAM)

HAM / Hak Asasi Manusia adalah hak yang melekat pada diri setiap manusia sejak awal dilahirkan yang berlaku seumur hidup dan tidak dapat diganggu gugat siapa pun. Sebagai warga negara yang baik kita mesti menjunjung tinggi nilai hak azasi manusia tanpa membeda-bedakan status, golongan, keturunan, jabatan, dan lain sebagainya.
Melanggar HAM seseorang bertentangan dengan hukum yang berlaku di Indonesia. Hak asasi manusia memiliki wadah organisasi yang mengurus permasalahan seputar hak asasi manusia yaitu Komnas HAM.

Di Indonesia, wacana hak asasi manusia bukanlah wacana yang asing dalam diskursus politik dan ketatanegaraan bangsa ini. Kita bisa menemuinya dengan gamblang dalam perjalanan sejarah pembentukkan bangsa ini, di mana perbincangan mengenai hak asasi manusia menjadi bagian daripadanya.

Jauh sebelum kemerdekaan, para perintis bangsa ini telah memercikkan pikiran-pikiran untuk memperjuangkan harkat dan martabat manusia yang lebih baik. Percikan pikiran tersebut dapat dibaca dalam surat-surat R.A. Kartini yang berjudul “Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang”, karangan-karangan politik yang ditulis oleh H.O.S. Cokroaminoto, Agus Salim, Douwes Dekker, Soewardi Soeryaningrat, petisi yang dibuat oleh Sutardjo di Volksraad atau pledoi Soekarno yang berjudul ”Indonesia Menggugat” dan Hatta dengan judul ”Indonesia Merdeka” yang dibacakan di depan pengadilan Hindia Belanda. Percikan-percikan pemikiran pada masa pergerakan kemerdekaan itu, yang terkristalisasi dengan kemerdekaan Indonesia, menjadi sumber inspirasi ketika konstitusi mulai diperdebatkan di Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI). Di sinilah terlihat bahwa para pendiri bangsa ini sudah menyadari pentingnya hak asasi manusia sebagai fondasi bagi negara.

Sama halnya dengan negara berkembang yang lain, hak asasi menjadi topik pembicaraan di Indonesia. Pembicaraan ini dilakukan menjelang perumusan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, masa Orde Baru dan Reformasi. Pada waktu rancangan naskah UUD dibicarakan, ada perbedaan pendapat mengenai peran hak asasi dalam negara demokratis. Banyak kalangan berpendapat bahwa Declaration des Droits de I’Homme et du Citoyen (1789) berdasarkan individualism dan liberalism, dank arena itu bertentangan dengan asas kekeluargaan dan gotong royong. Mengenai hal ini Ir. Soekarno menyatakan : “jikalau kita betul-betul hendak mendasarkan negara kita kepada paham kekeluargaan, paham tolong-menolong, paham gotong royong, dan keadilan social, enyahkanlah tiap-tiap pikiran, tiap paham individualisme dan liberalism daipadanya.”

Di pihak lain, Drs. Moh. Hatta mengatakan bahwa walaupun yang dibentuk negara kekeluargaan, namun perlu ditetapkan beberapa hak warga negara agar jangan timbul negara kekuasaan (Machtsstaat). Maka pada akhirnya tercapai kesepakatan bahwa hak asasi dimasukkan dalam UUD 1945, tetapi dalam jumlah terbatas. Perdebatan tersebut tidak berakhir begitu saja. Diskursus mengenai hak asasi manusia muncul kembali sebagai usaha untuk mengoreksi kelemahan dalam Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 pada sidang Konstituante (1957-1959). Sebagaimana terekam dalam Risalah Konstituente, khususnya dari Komisi Hak Asasi Manusia, perdebatan di sini jauh lebih sengit dibanding dengan perdebatan di BPUPKI. Berbeda dengan perdebatan awal di BPUPKI, diskusi di Konstituante relatif lebih menerima hak asasi manusia dalam pengertian natural rights, dan menganggapnya sebagai substansi Undang-Undang Dasar. Meskipun ada yang melihat dari perspektif agama atau budaya, perdebatan di Konstituante sebetulnya telah berhasil menyepakati 24 hak asasi manusia yang akan disusun dalam satu bab pada konstitusi. Namun konstituante dibubarkan oleh Soekarno, sehingga kesepakatan-keseakatan yang dicapai urung dilakukan, termasuk mengenai Hak Asasi Manusia.

Setelah rezim Demokrasi Terpimpin Soekarno digulingkan oleh gerakan mahasiswa 1966, maka lahirlah rezim Orde Baru yang juga memunculkan kembali perdebatan mengenai perlindungan konstitusionalitas hak asasi manusia. Perdebatan itu muncul pada Sidang Umum MPRS tahun 1968 di awal Orde Baru. MPRS ketika itu telah membentuk Panitia Ad Hoc Penyusunan Hak-Hak Asasi Manusia. Hasilnya adalah sebuah “Rancangan Keputusan MPRS tentang Piagam Hak-Hak Asasi Manusia dan Hak-hak serta Kewajiban Warga Negara”. Tetapi sayang sekali rancangan tersebut tidak berhasil diajukan ke Sidang Umum MPRS untuk disahkan sebagai ketetapan MPRS. Alasannya terutama diajukan oleh fraksi Karya Pembangunan dan ABRI, akan lebih tepat jika Piagam yang penting itu disiapkan oleh MPR hasil pemilu, bukan oleh MPR(S) yang bersifat “sementara”. Kenyataannya, setelah MPR hasil pemilu (1971) terbentuk, Rancangan Piagam Hak Asasi Manusia itu tidak pernah diajukan lagi.Fraksi Karya Pembangunan dan fraksi ABRI tidak pernah mengingat lagi apa yang pernah mereka putuskan pada Sidang Umum MPRS tahun 1968 tersebut. Sampai akhirnya datang gelombang besar “Reformasi”, yang melengserkan Soeharto dari kursi Presiden Indonesia (Mei, 1998) dan membuka babak baru wacana hak asasi manusia di Indonesia

HAK ASASI MANUSIA DALAM AMANDEMEN UUD 1945

Sebenarnya secara spesifik amandemen UUD 1945 tentang HAM telah tertuang dalam pasal 28 yang diajukan pada masa amandemen yang kedua 18 Agustus 2000 dengan menambahkan satu bab khusus, yaitu Bab X-A tentang Hak Asasi Manusia mulai Pasal 28 A sampai dengan 28 J. Sebagian besar isi perubahan tersebut mengatur hak-hak sipil dan politik, hak-hak ekonomi, sosial dan budaya.

 Adapun hak asasi manusia yang ditetapkan dalam Bab X A UUD 1945 adalah :

• Hak untuk hidup dan mempertahankan hidup dan kehidupannya (Pasal 28 A)

• Hak untuk membentuk keluarga dan melanjutkan keturunan melalui perkawinan yang sah (Pasal 28 B Ayat 1)

• Hak anak untuk kelangsungan hidup, tumbuh, dan berkembang serta hak atas perlindungan dari kekerasan dan diskriminasi (Pasal 28 B Ayat 2)

• Hak untuk mengembangkan diri melalui pemenuhan kebutuhan dasar (Pasal 28 C Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk mendapatkan pendidikan dan memperoleh manfaat dari ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi, seni, dan budaya (Pasal 28 C Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk mengajukan diri dalam memperjuangkan haknya secara kolektif (Pasal 28 C Ayat 2)

• Hak atas pengakuan, jaminan perlindungan dan kepastian hukum yang adil dan perlakuan yang sama di depan hukum (Pasal 28 D Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk bekerja dan mendapat imbalan serta perlakuan yang adil dan layak dalam hubungan kerja (Pasal 28 D Ayat 3)

• Hak untuk memperoleh kesempatan yang sama dalam pemerintahan (Pasal 28 D Ayat 3)

• Hak atas status kewarganegaraan (Pasal 28 D Ayat 4)

• Hak kebebasan untuk memeluk agama dan beribadah menurut agamanya (Pasal 28 E ayat 1)

• Hak memilih pekerjaan (Pasal 28 E Ayat 1)

• Hak memilih kewarganegaraan (Pasal 28 E Ayat 1)

• Hak memilih tempat tinggal di wilayah negara dan meninggalkannya, serta berhak untuk kembali (Pasal 28 E Ayat 1)

• Hak kebebasan untuk meyakini kepercayaan, menyatakan pikiran dan sikap sesuai hati nuraninya (Pasal 28 E Ayat 2)

• Hak kebebasan untuk berserikat, berkumpul dan mengeluarkan pendapat (Pasal 28 E ayat 3)

• Hak untuk berkomunikasi dan memeperoleh informasi (Pasal 28 F)

• Hak atas perlindungan diri pribadi, keluarga, kehormatan, martabat, dan harta benda (Pasal 28 G Ayat 1)

• Hak atas rasa aman dan perlindungan dari ancaman ketakutan untuk berbuat atau tidak berbuat sesuatu yang merupakan hak asasi manusia (Pasal 28 G Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk bebeas dari penyiksaan (torture) dan perlakuan yang merendahkan derajat martabat manusia (Pasal 28 G Ayat 2)

• Hak untuk hidup sejahtera lahir dan batin, bertempat tinggal, dan mendapatkan lingkungan hidup yang baik dan sehat (Pasal 28 H Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk memperoleh pelayanan kesehatan (Pasal 28 H Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk mendapat kemudahan dan perlakuan khusus guna mencapai persamaan dan keadilan (Pasal 28 H Ayat 2)

• Hak atas jaminan sosial (Pasal 28 H Ayat 3)

• Hak atas milik pribadi yang tidak boleh diambil alih sewenang-wenang oleh siapa pun (Pasal 28 H Ayat 4)

• Hak untuk tidak dituntut atas dasar hukum yang berlaku surut (retroaktif) (Pasal 28 I Ayat 1)

• Hak untuk bebas dari perlakuan diskriminasi atas dasar apa pun dan berhak mendapat perlindungan dari perlakuan diskriminatif (Pasal 28 I Ayat 2)

• Hak atas identitas budaya dan hak masyarakat tradisional (Pasal 28 I Ayat 3)

Sehubungan dengan substansi peraturan perundang-undangan, maka ada dua hal yang harus diperhatikan oleh pembentuk peraturan perundang-undangan. Pertama; pengaturan yang membatasi HAM hanya dapat dilakukan dengan undang-undang dan terbatas yang diperkenankan sesuai ketentuan Pasal 28J ayat (2) UUD 1945. Karena itu, Peraturan Pemerintah, Peraturan Presiden dan seterusnya pada tingkat bawah tidak dapat membatasi HAM. Kedua; substansi peraturan perundang-undangan harus selalu sesuai dengan ketentuan-ketentuan HAM yang ada dalam UUD 1945.

Pelanggaran terhadap salah satu saja dari kedua aspek tersebut dapat menjadi alasan bagi seseorang, badan hukum atau masyarakat hukum adat untuk menyampaikan permohonan pengujian terhadap undang-undang tersebut kepada Mahkamah Konstitusi dan jika bertentangan dengan UUD dapat saja undang-undang tersebut sebahagian atau seluruh dinyatakan tidak berkekuatan mengikat. Jadi mekanisme kontrol terhadap kekuasaan negara pembentuk undang-undang dilakukan oleh rakyat melalui Mahkamah Konstitusi. Dengan proses yang demikian menjadikan UUD kita menjadi UUD yang hidup, dinamis dan memiliki nilai praktikal yang mengawal perjalanan bangsa yang demokratis dan menghormati HAM. Namun, penegakan HAM tidak akan terwujud hanya dengan mencantumkannya dalam konstitusi. Semua pihak berkewajiban mengimplementasikannya dalam seluruh aspek kehidupan. Kita menyadari penegakan HAM tidak seperti membalik telapak tangan. Ia harus diawali dari level paling rendah, yaitu diri sendiri.

PENEGAKAN HUKUM DI INDONESIA

Penegak hukum di Indonesia yang mash terbilang lemah dan tidak tegas itu dapat kita lihat dari kasus-kasus seperti kasus lalulintas, persidangan san yang sering kita lihat di acara-acaran berita televisi. Begitu miris kita melihatnya dari kesaksian maupun dari pihak penegak hukum yang sepertinya pura-pura tidak tahu menahu tentang kebohongan yang para pelaku katakana. Tidak malukah penegak hukum kita dengan kejadian tersebut, padahal mereka sadar hukum dan di sumpah untuk berlaku jujur dalam menjalankan tugas mereka didalam menegakkan hukum di Indonesia.

Kasus pelanggaran ham di Indonesia memang masih banyak yang belum terselesaikan / tuntas sehingga diharapkan perkembangan dunia ham di Indonesia dapat terwujud ke arah yang lebih baik. Salah satu tokoh ham di Indonesia adalah Munir yang tewas dibunuh di atas pesawat udara saat menuju Belanda dari Indonesia.

Sebagai contoh selanjutnya, terjadi pada lingkungan lalulintas. Pelanggaran lalulintas yang sering kita lihat di jalan raya, para penegak hukum memberi sanksi kepada para pelanggar pengguna jalan yang melanggar peraturan perlalulintasan. Seharusnya pengguna jalan tersebut di hukum oleh pihak yang berwenang sehingga menimbulkan efek jera terhadap pelanggar tetapi mereka dapat bernegosiasi diantara pelanggar dan penegak hukum. Mereka yang melanggar dengan mudah mengeluarkan sejumlah uang yang telah disepakati saat bernegosiasi itu berlangsung. Sehingga mereka dapat melanjutkan perjalanan mereka tanpa harus mendapatkan perlakuan hukum. Dengan kejadian tersebut dapat membuat peraturan yang sudah dibuat untuk menertibkan dan membuat nyaman para pengguna jalan, membuat hukum Indonesia menjadi isapan jempol belaka. Jadi percuma saja para petinggi Negara membuat atau selalu merevisi hukum hanya untuk dilanggar dan hanya menjadi sebuah tulisan saja.

Tidak hanya contoh di atas saja yang membuat kita mengetahui betapa lemahnya penegakan hukum di Indonesia. Sebagai contoh selanjutnya adalah kasus korupsi yang sedang di perkarakan akhir-akhir ini. Menangani kasus korupsi memang tidak semudah membalikan telapak tangan. Tetapi walaupun sesulit apapun mengatasi masalah korupsi, tetap saja kita harus tetap membasmi pelaku-pelaku korupsi karna hal tersebut sangat merugikan banyak pihak khususnya rakyat Indonesia dan akan membuat masyarakat tidak mempercayai lagi hukum dan penegak hukum di Indonesia. Jangan sampai masyarakat tidak lagi mempunyai pegangan untuk hidup teratur dan sejahtera kalau hukum di negaranya sudah tidak benar.

Dari semua contoh diatas tidak sepenuhnya menjadi kesalahan pihak penegak hukum tapi masyarakat pada umumnya pun juga dapat di persalahkan. Karna peraturan dibuat bukan untuk penegak hukum semata tapi untuk masyarakat luas juga. Karna dalam hukum tidak ada strata tapi semuanya adalah sama dimata hukum. Penegak hukum melakukan hal tersebut mungkin karna ada kesempatan yang memancing mereka melakukan hal tersebut. Untuk itu perbenahilah diri sendiri kita mulai sekarang. Karena ketegakan hukum dapat terwujud dengan bagaimana kita memupuk keteratu